Overview Function de novo glucose synthesis effectively glycolysis in reverse can maintain blood glucose when glycogen stores are exhausted must supply brain and RBCs which utilize glucose for energy is NOT a source of energy for the liver hepatocytes use β-oxidation to supply the energy needed for gluconeogenesis potential substrates all amino acids except for leucine and lysine lactate produced in anaerobic glycolysis glycerol-3-phosphate produced in fat catabolism propionyl-CoA produced in odd-carbon fatty acid catabolism Pathway location hepatocytes (primary) kidney enterocytes NOT muscle no glucose-6-phosphatase cannot release free glucose enzymes involves both mitochondrial and cytosolic enzymes several steps of glycolysis are reversible the non-reversible steps must be bypassed with special gluconeogenic enzymes pyruvate carboxylase pyruvate → oxaloacetate requires biotin and ATP activated by acetyl-CoA oxaloacetate must be converted to malate to exit the mitochondria via the malate-aspartate shuttle in mitochondria PEP carboxykinase (PEPCK) oxaloacetate → phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) requires GTP activated by glucagon and cortisol in both cytosol and mitochondria fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase fructose-1,6-bisphosphate → fructose-6-P important control point of gluconeogenesis activated by ATP, inhibited by AMP and fructose-2,6-bisphosphate in cytosol glucose-6-phosphatase (G6P) glucose-6-P → glucose in ER of hepatocytes clinical relevance von Gierke disease = G6P deficiency see Glycogen metabolism other enzymes lactate dehydrogenase lactate → pyruvate requires free NAD+ regulation stimulation glucagon acetyl CoA citrate inhibition high NADH/NAD+ ratio alcohol may cause elevated NADH/NAD+ ratio leading to hypoglycemia
QUESTIONS 1 of 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 Previous Next Lab Values Blood Hematologic Cerebrospinal Sweat, Urine, and BMI Blood, Plasma, Serum Reference Range ALT 8-20 U/L Amylase, serum 25-125 U/L AST 8-20 U/L Bilirubin, serum (adult) Total // Direct 0.1-1.0 mg/dL // 0.0-0.3 mg/dL Calcium, serum (Ca2+) 8.4-10.2 mg/dL Cholesterol, serum Rec: < 200 mg/dL Cortisol, serum 0800 h: 5-23 μg/dL //1600 h: 3-15 μg/dL 2000 h: ≤ 50% of 0800 h Creatine kinase, serum Male: 25-90 U/LFemale: 10-70 U/L Creatinine, serum 0.6-1.2 mg/dL Electrolytes, serum Sodium (Na+) 136-145 mEq/L Chloride (Cl-) 95-105 mEq/L Potassium (K+) 3.5-5.0 mEq/L Bicarbonate (HCO3-) 22-28 mEq/L Magnesium (Mg2+) 1.5-2.0 mEq/L Estriol, total, serum (in pregnancy) 24-28 wks // 32-36 wks 30-170 ng/mL // 60-280 ng/mL 28-32 wk // 36-40 wks 40-220 ng/mL // 80-350 ng/mL Ferritin, serum Male: 15-200 ng/mLFemale: 12-150 ng/mL Follicle-stimulating hormone, serum/plasma Male: 4-25 mIU/mL Female: premenopause: 4-30 mIU/mL midcycle peak: 10-90 mIU/mL postmenopause: 40-250 pH 7.35-7.45 PCO2 33-45 mmHg PO2 75-105 mmHg Glucose, serum Fasting: 70-110 mg/dL2-h postprandial:<120 mg/dL Growth hormone - arginine stimulation Fasting: <5 ng/mLProvocative stimuli: > 7ng/mL Immunoglobulins, serum IgA 76-390 mg/dL IgE 0-380 IU/mL IgG 650-1500 mg/dL IgM 40-345 mg/dL Iron 50-170 μg/dL Lactate dehydrogenase, serum 45-90 U/L Luteinizing hormone, serum/plasma Male: 6-23 mIU/mL Female: follicular phase: 5-30 mIU/mL midcycle: 75-150 mIU/mL postmenopause 30-200 mIU/mL Osmolality, serum 275-295 mOsmol/kd H2O Parathyroid hormone, serume, N-terminal 230-630 pg/mL Phosphatase (alkaline), serum (p-NPP at 30° C) 20-70 U/L Phosphorus (inorganic), serum 3.0-4.5 mg/dL Prolactin, serum (hPRL) < 20 ng/mL Proteins, serum Total (recumbent) 6.0-7.8 g/dL Albumin 3.5-5.5 g/dL Globulin 2.3-3.5 g/dL Thyroid-stimulating hormone, serum or plasma .5-5.0 μU/mL Thyroidal iodine (123I) uptake 8%-30% of administered dose/24h Thyroxine (T4), serum 5-12 μg/dL Triglycerides, serum 35-160 mg/dL Triiodothyronine (T3), serum (RIA) 115-190 ng/dL Triiodothyronine (T3) resin uptake 25%-35% Urea nitrogen, serum 7-18 mg/dL Uric acid, serum 3.0-8.2 mg/dL Hematologic Reference Range Bleeding time 2-7 minutes Erythrocyte count Male: 4.3-5.9 million/mm3Female: 3.5-5.5 million mm3 Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (Westergren) Male: 0-15 mm/hFemale: 0-20 mm/h Hematocrit Male: 41%-53%Female: 36%-46% Hemoglobin A1c ≤ 6 % Hemoglobin, blood Male: 13.5-17.5 g/dLFemale: 12.0-16.0 g/dL Hemoglobin, plasma 1-4 mg/dL Leukocyte count and differential Leukocyte count 4,500-11,000/mm3 Segmented neutrophils 54%-62% Bands 3%-5% Eosinophils 1%-3% Basophils 0%-0.75% Lymphocytes 25%-33% Monocytes 3%-7% Mean corpuscular hemoglobin 25.4-34.6 pg/cell Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration 31%-36% Hb/cell Mean corpuscular volume 80-100 μm3 Partial thromboplastin time (activated) 25-40 seconds Platelet count 150,000-400,000/mm3 Prothrombin time 11-15 seconds Reticulocyte count 0.5%-1.5% of red cells Thrombin time < 2 seconds deviation from control Volume Plasma Male: 25-43 mL/kgFemale: 28-45 mL/kg Red cell Male: 20-36 mL/kgFemale: 19-31 mL/kg Cerebrospinal Fluid Reference Range Cell count 0-5/mm3 Chloride 118-132 mEq/L Gamma globulin 3%-12% total proteins Glucose 40-70 mg/dL Pressure 70-180 mm H2O Proteins, total < 40 mg/dL Sweat Reference Range Chloride 0-35 mmol/L Urine Calcium 100-300 mg/24 h Chloride Varies with intake Creatinine clearance Male: 97-137 mL/minFemale: 88-128 mL/min Estriol, total (in pregnancy) 30 wks 6-18 mg/24 h 35 wks 9-28 mg/24 h 40 wks 13-42 mg/24 h 17-Hydroxycorticosteroids Male: 3.0-10.0 mg/24 hFemale: 2.0-8.0 mg/24 h 17-Ketosteroids, total Male: 8-20 mg/24 hFemale: 6-15 mg/24 h Osmolality 50-1400 mOsmol/kg H2O Oxalate 8-40 μg/mL Potassium Varies with diet Proteins, total < 150 mg/24 h Sodium Varies with diet Uric acid Varies with diet Body Mass Index (BMI) Adult: 19-25 kg/m2 Calculator ( ) xy AC 7 8 9 ÷ 4 5 6 × 1 2 3 - 0 . = + Sorry, this question is for PEAK Premium Subscribers only Upgrade to PEAK Sorry, this question is for PEAK Premium Subscribers only Upgrade to PEAK You have 100% on this question. Just skip this one for now. Take This Question Anyway (M1.BC.15.74) The balance between glycolysis and gluconeogenesis is regulated at several steps, and accumulation of one or more products/chemicals can either promote or inhibit one or more enzymes in either pathway. Which of the following molecules if increased in concentration can promote gluconeogenesis? Review Topic | Tested Concept QID: 106607 Type & Select Correct Answer 1 AMP 12% (14/116) 2 ADP 19% (22/116) 3 Insulin 5% (6/116) 4 Fructose-2,6-biphosphate 22% (26/116) 5 Acetyl-CoA 41% (47/116) L 1 Question Complexity D Question Importance Select Answer to see Preferred Response SUBMIT RESPONSE 5 Sorry, this question is for PEAK Premium Subscribers only Upgrade to PEAK You have 100% on this question. Just skip this one for now. Take This Question Anyway (M1.BC.14.1) To prepare for an endoscopy, a 27-year-old male was asked by the gastroenterologist to fast overnight for his 12 p.m. appointment the next day. Therefore, his last meal was dinner at 5 p.m. the day before the appointment. By 12 p.m. the day of the appointment, his primary source of glucose was being generated from gluconeogenesis, which occurs via the reversal of glycolysis with extra enzymes to bypass the irreversible steps in glycolysis. Which of the following irreversible steps of gluconeogenesis occurs in the mitochondria? Review Topic | Tested Concept QID: 106291 Type & Select Correct Answer 1 Glucose-6-phosphate to glucose 2% (1/42) 2 Fructose-1,6-biphosphate to fructose-6-phosphate 17% (7/42) 3 Pyruvate to oxaloacetate 64% (27/42) 4 Phosphoenolypyruvate to pyruvate 10% (4/42) 5 Glucose-6-phosphate to 6-phosphogluconolactone 2% (1/42) L 1 Question Complexity E Question Importance Select Answer to see Preferred Response SUBMIT RESPONSE 3 You have 100% on this question. Just skip this one for now. Take This Question Anyway (M1.BC.13.2) A 65-year-old homeless man with a history of hospitalization for alcohol intoxication is brought in confused. His serum glucose is 39mg/dl. Which of the following is likely true? Review Topic | Tested Concept QID: 100067 Type & Select Correct Answer 1 He has also been using cocaine 1% (2/329) 2 He has decreased activity of alcohol dehydrogenase 9% (29/329) 3 Hepatic gluconeogenesis is elevated 7% (23/329) 4 The next step in management is glucose repletion 21% (68/329) 5 His hepatic NADH/NAD+ ratio is high 62% (203/329) L 1 Question Complexity E Question Importance Select Answer to see Preferred Response SUBMIT RESPONSE 5