Overview Goals of diabetes treatment lower serum glucose to physiologic range keep insulin levels in physiologic range eliminate insulin resistance best initial step in management: weight loss, contractile-based exercise weight loss is more important for insulin sensitivity than is a low-carb diet Modalities of diabetes treatment type I DM insulin low-sugar diet type II DM exercise diet insulin 6 classes of drugs shown below Class Example ↑ Insulin secretion ↑ Insulin sensitivity ↓ Glucose production ↓ Glucose absorption Weight Hypoglycemia Insulin Insulin ↑ ++ Sulfonylureas Glyburide ++ + + ↑ ++ Meglitinides Nateglinide ++ + + ↑ ++ Biguanides Metformin + ++ None Glitazones (thiazolidinediones) Pioglitazone ++ +/- ↑↓ + α-glucosidase inhibitors Acarbose ++ None GLP-1 mimetics (incretin mimetics) Exenatide ++ + ↓ + Amylin analog Pramlintide + + + Insulin Insulin is only given parenterally (subcutaneous or IV) Various preparations have different durations of action Other preparations include aspart (rapid), detemir (long) Preparation Onset (hrs) Peak (hrs) Duration (hrs) Lispro (rapid-acting) 15 min 0.5-1.5 3-4 Regular (short-acting) 0.5-1 2-4 5-7 NPH (intermediate) 1-2 6-12 18-24 Glargine (long-acting) 1 None >24 Mechanism bind transmembrane insulin receptor activate tyrosine kinase phosphorylate specific substrates in each tissue type liver ↑ glycogenesis store glucose as glycogen muscle ↑ glycogen and protein synthesis ↑ K+ uptake fat increase triglyceride storage Clinical use type I DM type II DM life-threatening hyperkalemia increases intracellular K+ stress-induced hyperglycemia Toxicity hypoglycemia hypersensitivity reaction (very rare) Insulin Synthesis first generated as preproinsulin with an A chain and B chain connected by a C peptide. c-peptide is cleaved from proinsulin after packaging into vesicles leaving behind the A and B chains Sulfonylureas Drugs first generation tolbutamide chlorpropamide second generation glyburide glimepiride glipizide Mechanism glucose normally triggers insulin release from pancreatic β cells by increasing intracellular ATP → closes K+ channels → depolarization → ↑ Ca2+ influx → insulin release sulfonylureas mimic action of glucose by closing K+ channels in pancreatic β cells → depolarization → ↑ Ca2+ influx → insulin release continued use results in ↓ glucagon release ↑ insulin sensitivity in muscle and liver Clinical use type II DM stimulates release of endogenous insulin cannot be used in type I DM due to complete lack of islet function Toxicity first generation disulfiram-like effects especially chlorpropamide second generation hypoglycemia weight gain Megltinides Drugs nateglinide repaglinide Mechanism binds to K+ channels on β-cells → postprandial insulin release different site than sulfonylureas Clinical use type 2 diabetes mellitus may be used as monotherapy, or in combination with metformin Toxicity ↑ risk of hypoglycemia at even greater risk in those with renal failure weight gain Biguanides Drugs metformin Mechanism ↓ hepatic gluconeogenesis exact mechanism unknown appears to inhibit complex 1 of respiratory chain may also ↑ insulin sensitivity ↑ glycolysis ↓ serum glucose levels ↓ postprandial glucose levels Clinical use first-line therapy in type II DM Toxicity no hypoglycemia no weight gain lactic acidosis is most serious side effect contraindicated in renal failure Glitazones (thiazolidinediones) Thiazolidinediones, also known as the "-glitazones" Drugs pioglitazone rosiglitazone Mechanism bind to nuclear receptors involved in transcription of genes mediating insulin sensitivity peroxisome proliferator-activating receptors (PPARs) ↑ insulin sensitivity in peripheral tissue ↓ gluconeogenesis ↑ insulin receptor numbers ↓ triglycerides Clinical use type II DM as monotherapy or in combination with other agents contraindicated in CHF associated with increased risk of MI (in particular rosiglitazone) Toxicity weight gain edema peripheral edema pulmonary edema hepatotoxicity CV toxicity less risk of hypoglycemia vs. sulfonylureas α-glucosidase inhibitors Drugs acarbose miglitol Mechanism inhibit α-glucosidases in intestinal brush border delayed sugar hydrolysis delayed glucose absorption ↓ postprandial hyperglycemia ↓ insulin demand Clinical use type II DM as monotherapy or in combination with other agents Toxicity no hypoglycemia GI upset Amylin mimetics Drugs pramlintide Mechanism synthetic analogue of human amylin that acts in conjunction with insulin ↓ release of glucagon delays gastric emptying Clinical use type I and II DM Toxicity hypoglycemia if given with insulin nausea diarrhea GLP-1 analogs Drugs exenatide Mechanism GLP-1 is an incretin released from the small intestine that aids glucose-dependent insulin secretion basis for drug mechanism is the observation that more insulin secreted with oral glucose load compared to IV exenatide is a GLP-1 agonist ↑ insulin ↓ glucagon release the class of dipeptidyl peptidase inhibitors ↓ degradation of endogenous GLP-1 e.g.) sitagliptin, -gliptins Clinical use type II DM Toxicity nausea, vomiting pancreatitis hypoglycemia if given with sulfonylureas SGLT-2 Inhibitors Drugs canagliflozin empagliflozin Mechanism glucose is reabsorbed in the proximal tubule of the nephron by the sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) SGLT2-inhibitors lower serum glucose by increasing urinary glucose excretion the mechanism of action is independent of insulin secretion or action Clinical use type II DM Toxicity dehydration urinary and genital infections
QUESTIONS 1 of 16 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Previous Next Sorry, this question is for PEAK Premium Subscribers only Upgrade to PEAK Sorry, this question is for PEAK Premium Subscribers only Upgrade to PEAK Sorry, this question is for PEAK Premium Subscribers only Upgrade to PEAK Sorry, this question is for PEAK Premium Subscribers only Upgrade to PEAK Sorry, this question is for PEAK Premium Subscribers only Upgrade to PEAK Sorry, this question is for PEAK Premium Subscribers only Upgrade to PEAK Sorry, this question is for PEAK Premium Subscribers only Upgrade to PEAK (M1.EC.15.75) A simple experiment is performed to measure the breakdown of sucrose into glucose and fructose by a gut enzyme that catalyzes this reaction. A glucose meter is used to follow the breakdown of sucrose into glucose. When no enzyme is added to the sucrose solution, the glucose meter will have a reading of 0 mg/dL; but when the enzyme is added, the glucose meter will start to show readings indicative of glucose being formed. Which of the following diabetic pharmacological agents, when added before the addition of the gut enzyme to the sucrose solution, will maintain a reading of 0 mg/dL? Tested Concept QID: 106870 Type & Select Correct Answer 1 Insulin 7% (2/28) 2 Glyburide 0% (0/28) 3 Metformin 14% (4/28) 4 Acarbose 79% (22/28) 5 Exenatide 0% (0/28) M 1 Question Complexity D Question Importance Select Answer to see Preferred Response SUBMIT RESPONSE 4 Review tested concept (M1.EC.15.1) A 45-year-old African-American male presents to the family medicine physician to assess the status of his diabetes. After reviewing the laboratory tests, the physician decides to write the patient a prescription for miglitol and states that it must be taken with the first bite of the meal. Which of the following bonds will no longer be cleaved when the patient takes miglitol? Tested Concept QID: 107077 Type & Select Correct Answer 1 Phosphodiester bonds 2% (1/51) 2 Glycosidic bonds 78% (40/51) 3 Peptide bonds 8% (4/51) 4 Cystine bonds 6% (3/51) 5 Hydrogen bonds 4% (2/51) M 1 Question Complexity D Question Importance Select Answer to see Preferred Response SUBMIT RESPONSE 2 Review tested concept (M1.EC.14.70) A patient presents to the emergency room in an obtunded state. The patient is a known nurse within the hospital system and has no history of any medical problems. A finger stick blood glucose is drawn showing a blood glucose of 25 mg/dL. The patient's daughter immediately arrives at the hospital stating that her mother has been depressed recently and that she found empty syringes in the bathroom at the mother's home. Which of the following is the test that will likely reveal the diagnosis? Tested Concept QID: 106480 Type & Select Correct Answer 1 Genetic testing 0% (0/66) 2 C-peptide level 76% (50/66) 3 24 hr cortisol 6% (4/66) 4 Fasting blood glucose 5% (3/66) 5 Urine metanephrines 9% (6/66) M 1 Question Complexity D Question Importance Select Answer to see Preferred Response SUBMIT RESPONSE 2 Review tested concept (M1.EC.13.107) A 55-year-old male is hospitalized for acute heart failure. The patient has a 20-year history of alcoholism and was diagnosed with diabetes mellitus type 2 (DM2) 5 years ago. Physical examination reveals ascites and engorged paraumbilical veins as well as 3+ pitting edema around both ankles. Liver function tests show elevations in gamma glutamyl transferase and aspartate transaminase (AST). Of the following medication, which most likely contributed to this patient's presentation? Tested Concept QID: 100408 Type & Select Correct Answer 1 Glargine 2% (5/231) 2 Glipizide 14% (32/231) 3 Metformin 17% (40/231) 4 Pioglitazone 63% (145/231) 5 Pramlintide 2% (5/231) M 3 Question Complexity E Question Importance Select Answer to see Preferred Response SUBMIT RESPONSE 4 Review tested concept Sorry, this question is for PEAK Premium Subscribers only Upgrade to PEAK (M1.EC.13.201) A 53-year-old male presents to your office for a regularly scheduled check-up. The patient was diagnosed with type II diabetes mellitus two years ago. To date, diet, exercise, and metformin have failed to control his elevated blood glucose. Past medical history is also significant for hypertension. The patient does not smoke or use cigarettes. Laboratory values show a hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) of 8.5%. You decide to add sitagliptin to the patient’s medication regimen. Which of the following is the direct mechanism of action of sitagliptin? Tested Concept QID: 106238 Type & Select Correct Answer 1 Inhibits degradation of endogenous incretins 55% (119/218) 2 Inhibits alpha-glucosidases at the intestinal brush border 4% (8/218) 3 Activates transcription of PPARs to increase peripheral sensitivity to insulin 18% (40/218) 4 Depolarizes potassium channels in pancreatic beta cells 4% (9/218) 5 Increases secretion of insulin in response to oral glucose loads and delays gastric emptying 18% (40/218) M 3 Question Complexity E Question Importance Select Answer to see Preferred Response SUBMIT RESPONSE 1 Review tested concept (M1.EC.13.1) A 45-year-old woman presents to your office with a serum glucose of 250 mg/dL and you diagnose diabetes mellitus type II. You intend to prescribe the patient metformin, but you decide to order laboratory tests before proceeding. Which of the following basic metabolic panel values would serve as a contraindication to the use of metformin? Tested Concept QID: 100302 Type & Select Correct Answer 1 K+ > 4.0 5% (2/38) 2 Na+ > 140 3% (1/38) 3 HCO3- > 30 0% (0/38) 4 Glucose > 300 0% (0/38) 5 Creatinine > 2.0 92% (35/38) M 3 Question Complexity E Question Importance Select Answer to see Preferred Response SUBMIT RESPONSE 5 Review tested concept Sorry, this question is for PEAK Premium Subscribers only Upgrade to PEAK Sorry, this question is for PEAK Premium Subscribers only Upgrade to PEAK
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