Emphysema

Introduction
A condition characterized by dilation of air spaces (with ↓ elasticity and ↑ compliance) due to alveolar wall destruction normally, elastin in the wall functions to keep alveoli open capillaries are destroyed along with the alveoli Causes smoking most common cause α₁-antitrypsin (AAT) deficiency AD disorder (codominant) MM phenotype is normal ZZ phenotype results in disease AAT normally inhibits the action of elastase without AAT elastase is unchecked and destroys the elastic tissue of the alveoli as a result emphysema develops at early age may also develop cirrhosis due to the inability to release an abnormal form of AAT from the liver resulting in hepatotoxicity
Classification
Centriacinar dilated respiratory bronchiole most common presentation of emphysema due to smoking result of inhaled tobacco toxins arriving first in the respiratory bronchioles before traveling to the alveolus most commonly in the upper lobes result of upper lobes receiving exposure to smoke Panacinar dilated alveoli most common presentation of AAT deficiency also due to a functional AAT deficiency as a result of smoking oxidants and inflammatory reaction of smoke can destroy AAT smoking exacerbates effects of genetic AAT deficiency most commonly in the lower lobes result of lower lobes recieving ↑ perfusion allowing more immune cells to traffic into the alveoli Paraseptal most commonly involves young, otherwise healthy males does not obstruct the airway associated with bullae found near the pleura increased risk for spontaneous pneumothorax
Presentation
Symptoms dyspnea classic pursed-lip breathing results in increased airway pressure and prevents airway collapse during exhalation Physical exam decreased breath sounds on auscultation increased anterior-posterior diameter (barrel chest) hyperresonant to percussion "pink puffer" (end-stage)

Imaging

Chest radiograph
- increased AP diameter with flattened diaphragms
- hyperinflated lungs
- loss of lung markings
- elongated heart

Evaluation

Labs
- ABG during exacerbation shows hypoxemia and acute respiratory acidosis
- AAT shows no α-globin peak on electrophoresis
Pulmonary function tests
- decreased FEV_{1 sec} / FVC
- increased TLC and RV
- decreased diffusion capacity from destruction of capillaries

Treatment

Conservative
- smoking cessation
- ambulatory O₂
Pharmacologic
- bronchodilators
  - for symptom improvement
- inhaled steroids
  - reduce exacerbations
- oral/IV steroids and antibiotics
  - for acute exacerbations

Emphysema ( Centri acinar , Pan acinar , Paraseptal , Irregular ) - Usmle step 1

Treatment of Emphysema

Emphysema

Blood, Plasma, Serum	Reference Range
ALT	8-20 U/L
Amylase, serum	25-125 U/L
AST	8-20 U/L
Bilirubin, serum (adult) Total // Direct	0.1-1.0 mg/dL // 0.0-0.3 mg/dL
Calcium, serum (Ca²⁺)	8.4-10.2 mg/dL
Cholesterol, serum	Rec: < 200 mg/dL
Cortisol, serum	0800 h: 5-23 μg/dL //1600 h: 3-15 μg/dL 2000 h: ≤ 50% of 0800 h
Creatine kinase, serum	Male: 25-90 U/L Female: 10-70 U/L
Creatinine, serum	0.6-1.2 mg/dL
Electrolytes, serum
Sodium (Na⁺)	136-145 mEq/L
Chloride (Cl^-)	95-105 mEq/L
Potassium (K⁺)	3.5-5.0 mEq/L
Bicarbonate (HCO₃^-)	22-28 mEq/L
Magnesium (Mg²⁺)	1.5-2.0 mEq/L
Estriol, total, serum (in pregnancy)
24-28 wks // 32-36 wks	30-170 ng/mL // 60-280 ng/mL
28-32 wk // 36-40 wks	40-220 ng/mL // 80-350 ng/mL
Ferritin, serum	Male: 15-200 ng/mL Female: 12-150 ng/mL
Follicle-stimulating hormone, serum/plasma	Male: 4-25 mIU/mL Female: premenopause: 4-30 mIU/mL midcycle peak: 10-90 mIU/mL postmenopause: 40-250
pH	7.35-7.45
PCO₂	33-45 mmHg
PO₂	75-105 mmHg
Glucose, serum	Fasting: 70-110 mg/dL 2-h postprandial:<120 mg/dL
Growth hormone - arginine stimulation	Fasting: <5 ng/mL Provocative stimuli: > 7ng/mL
Immunoglobulins, serum
IgA	76-390 mg/dL
IgE	0-380 IU/mL
IgG	650-1500 mg/dL
IgM	40-345 mg/dL
Iron	50-170 μg/dL
Lactate dehydrogenase, serum	45-90 U/L
Luteinizing hormone, serum/plasma	Male: 6-23 mIU/mL Female: follicular phase: 5-30 mIU/mL midcycle: 75-150 mIU/mL postmenopause 30-200 mIU/mL
Osmolality, serum	275-295 mOsmol/kd H₂O
Parathyroid hormone, serume, N-terminal	230-630 pg/mL
Phosphatase (alkaline), serum (p-NPP at 30° C)	20-70 U/L
Phosphorus (inorganic), serum	3.0-4.5 mg/dL
Prolactin, serum (hPRL)	< 20 ng/mL
Proteins, serum

Hematologic	Reference Range
Bleeding time	2-7 minutes
Erythrocyte count	Male: 4.3-5.9 million/mm³ Female: 3.5-5.5 million mm³
Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (Westergren)	Male: 0-15 mm/h Female: 0-20 mm/h
Hematocrit	Male: 41%-53% Female: 36%-46%
Hemoglobin A1c	≤ 6 %
Hemoglobin, blood	Male: 13.5-17.5 g/dL Female: 12.0-16.0 g/dL
Hemoglobin, plasma	1-4 mg/dL
Leukocyte count and differential
Leukocyte count	4,500-11,000/mm³
Segmented neutrophils	54%-62%
Bands	3%-5%
Eosinophils	1%-3%
Basophils	0%-0.75%
Lymphocytes	25%-33%
Monocytes	3%-7%
Mean corpuscular hemoglobin	25.4-34.6 pg/cell
Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration	31%-36% Hb/cell
Mean corpuscular volume	80-100 μm³
Partial thromboplastin time (activated)	25-40 seconds
Platelet count	150,000-400,000/mm³
Prothrombin time	11-15 seconds
Reticulocyte count	0.5%-1.5% of red cells
Thrombin time	< 2 seconds deviation from control
Volume
Plasma	Male: 25-43 mL/kg Female: 28-45 mL/kg
Red cell	Male: 20-36 mL/kg Female: 19-31 mL/kg

Cerebrospinal Fluid	Reference Range
Cell count	0-5/mm³
Chloride	118-132 mEq/L
Gamma globulin	3%-12% total proteins
Glucose	40-70 mg/dL
Pressure	70-180 mm H₂O
Proteins, total	< 40 mg/dL

Sweat	Reference Range
Chloride	0-35 mmol/L
Urine
Calcium	100-300 mg/24 h
Chloride	Varies with intake
Creatinine clearance	Male: 97-137 mL/min Female: 88-128 mL/min
Estriol, total (in pregnancy)
30 wks	6-18 mg/24 h
35 wks	9-28 mg/24 h
40 wks	13-42 mg/24 h
17-Hydroxycorticosteroids	Male: 3.0-10.0 mg/24 h Female: 2.0-8.0 mg/24 h
17-Ketosteroids, total	Male: 8-20 mg/24 h Female: 6-15 mg/24 h
Osmolality	50-1400 mOsmol/kg H₂O
Oxalate	8-40 μg/mL
Potassium	Varies with diet
Proteins, total	< 150 mg/24 h
Sodium	Varies with diet
Uric acid	Varies with diet
Body Mass Index (BMI)	Adult: 19-25 kg/m²